Just one year after he steered Hong Kong show jumper Samantha Lam to victory at the 2011 FEI World Cup equestrian qualifier in Beijing, Double Bent lay a shadow of his former self, slumped in an anaesthetized state in a Tongzhou district paddock undergoing an operation to remove an egg-sized bladder stone.

Fortunately, the 10-year-old gelding's complicated surgery was a success, an outcome made all the more remarkable because Beijing lacks an equine hospital.

"Seeing Double Bent, a former world champion, in such a heartbreaking situation made me sad. It almost made me cry," said Huang Zuping, the Hanoverian's owner and current coach of the Chinese national equestrian team.

China's blossoming equestrian love affair has seen a surge in imports of warm-blood horse breeds from Europe, however limited equine medical resources and substandard treatment of horses by wealthy owners eyeing little more than weekend playthings have caused animal activists to raise welfare concerns.

Playthings of the wealthy

China imported around 2,000 horses between 2008 and 2012, according to the 2012 China Equestrian Industry White Book, with prices ranging between 200,000 and 3 million yuan ($32,177-$483,030) per horse depending on their age and level of training. With more than 70 stables and 200 horse clubs, Beijing is the Chinese mainland's equestrian capital.

"Warm-blood horses are suited to equestrian, but those imported to China are unlikely to qualify for international competitions," said Wutzala, an ethnic Mongolian committee member of the China Equestrian Association.

Yao Jikun, marketing manager at the Mustang Club in Haidian district, an equestrian club that is home to more than 20 horses, said that most members at the establishment prefer to import expensive European horses rather than buy domestically-bred ones.

Although well-suited to long-distance riding, most Chinese breeds, many that are descended from wild Mongolian horses, are too small to compete in equestrian sports such as dressage or show jumping. Warm-blood horses stand up to 17 hands (1.72 meters) high, while the common Chinese guoxia horse breed ranges between 10 and 14 hands high, or slightly taller than a pony.

"There many other reasons why Chinese prefer European horses," said Yao. "Thoroughbreds have better appearances than Chinese horses. Many wealthy Chinese who buy European horses do so purely to show off their wealth."

Huang said "very few" horse owners in China have the necessary know-how to care for their animals because of their inexperience.

"They are big names in their fields, so they fool themselves into thinking they can handle horse ownership," he said. "But many are wrong. Equestrian is totally different to anything they know."

One of the reasons Chinese buyers tend to favor importing young horses is that they think they will be easier to train, when actually Huang advises prospective horse owners to buy the animals once they have matured.

"Some wealthy Chinese are aware of this rule, but they still insist on buying young horses because they believe they will have a relatively longer period of being able to ride them," Huang said. "Nearly every inexperienced rider gets injured from riding young horses."

Maiken Jaeschke, China CEO of Equestrian Globe and the official representative of the German Equestrian Federation for Greater China, said serious horse buyers should do their homework by picking their animals in person, rather than placing orders via Chinese stables.

"Buyers give stables specific criteria, such as the height, color and breed of the horses they want, but they don't get a chance to actually try out the horses. Because of this, people end up buying horses that aren't suited to those who ride them," Jaeschke said, noting this is a common problem globally.

Differing equine standards

Huang blames this trend on wealthy Chinese whose goal of horse ownership is to flaunt their affluence. "They often think all luxury products, including horses, are better if they come from overseas. Because China doesn't have rules or regulations governing the equestrian industry, problems often occur and go unresolved," he said.

Aside from Olympic equestrian sports, horses in China are also used for polo tournaments held annually in Beijing and Tianjin.

According to Yao, there are only around a dozen reputable Chinese equine vets nationwide, with no organization providing training in equine medical science.

"In China, we lack professional trainers and veterinarians. The equine industry is still in its infancy, but the importation of European horses allows us to build a bridge with equine experts from abroad," said Yao.

Many European stables are staffed by full-time teams that include equine vets, grooms and farriers. Huang estimates in Germany alone there are up to 5,000 farriers, or horseshoe fitters with basic equine medical knowledge, although most Chinese stables lack such personnel because training for these positions isn't available as it is in Europe, where comprehensive apprenticeships are offered. By comparison, Chinese farriers usually begin work after only a couple of months' training, Huang said.

"Due to cultural influences, many Chinese view horses as beasts of burden. In Europe, by contrast, grooms are considered horses' servants," Huang said, referring to the job of feeding and currying horses.

Jaeschke echoed this view, saying horse owners in China care about their animals but often think they "lack knowledge about [providing] the right care."

Many injuries can be caused due to ignorance on behalf of stable staff, with consequences sometimes serious. "Even a tiny problem, such as uneven ground, can cause incurable injuries to horses," Jaeschke said.

Another gap in equine care can be found in the difference between Chinese and Western horse feed, particularly regarding nutritional value. "In foreign countries, there are special types of feed for foals and pregnant horses," Jaeschke said. "Hoeveler, the biggest horse feed company in Germany, has more than 50 different products." Although in China, generic domestic horse feed is most commonly used.

Dressage and show jumping are by far the most prestigious equestrian sports, although competitions that involve poorly-trained horses inevitably result in higher rates of injuries.

"Horses often need to compete in equestrian competitions, so there are significant risks of injuries," Wutzala said. "Many experienced equine vets who used to work for the military changed their jobs after the People's Liberation Army suspended its cavalry division in 1982."

Welfare woes

Huang said it would take years of development of China's equestrian industry to match standards overseas, saying stricter regulation is vital to ensure the animals' welfare.

Through Jaeschke's work, Equestrian Globe aims to "cover every aspect of horse care, from stable humidity control to breeding."

"We also are trying to improve groom training, but it's not that easy," she said, adding equine education needs to begin with children learning to ride horses.

But according to Jaeschke, there is an insufficient number of stables in the country. "China should build more stables and get more people engaged in equestrian by offering more opportunities," she said.

Improving care of horses is also vital at existing stables, where cases of animal cruelty have emerged in recent years.

In September 2009, at least 36 thoroughbreds at the Beijing Jockey Club in Tongzhou district starved to death within 20 days. The club was the largest racing track and stable in Asia before its fall from grace in 2005, when it had to close after a lawsuit alleging gambling at its racing venues.

Similar uproar ensued in October 2012, when UK newspaper the Daily Mail reported on the traditional spectacle of horse fighting to celebrate the autumn harvest in the Guangxi Zhuang Autonomous Region.

Qin Xiaona, director of the Capital Animal Welfare Association, said that China's lack of animal cruelty laws means horses' well-being relies on responsible owners.

"For horses, their welfare depends on their owners' morality. I know some people who only buy horses to show off their wealth, even though they know nothing about the animals. The benefits of these horses can't be guaranteed," said Qin, adding that China's equestrian industry was "out of control."

"Even if domestic animal cruelty laws can't be drafted, I hope China can follow international guidelines on how to treat horses."

Huang said in terms of equine veterinary care, China should send students overseas to learn from experts to develop its domestic industry. "Double Bent was diagnosed and operated on by Qi Changming, a notable Chinese equine vet. Our vets are rich in theory and experience, so they have the potential to teach the next generation," he said.

For her part, Jaeschke said she hopes in the future China can establish a "system of certification for riders and horses."

"We are trying to help the Chinese equestrian market become more professional and make horses more enjoyable for people, but the road ahead of us is long," she noted.

Yao described competition as "fierce" in Chinese equestrian, although with a "bright future."

"There are around 700,000 people nationwide involved in equestrian, so it's better to get into the equestrian industry early rather than late," he said.