IN-DEPTH / IN-DEPTH
A delicious blend: Why are there so many Sichuan restaurants in Xizang? Fusion of history, tradition, and spicy flavors reflects deep bond between the Han and Tibetans
Editor's Note:
In Xizang, one can enjoy authentic Sichuan cuisine. Today, Sichuan cuisine has become an integral part of life in Southwest China's Xizang Autonomous Region - from the bustling hotpot and self-service skewers in downtown Lhasa to modest roadside eateries serving spicy dishes along the remote highways of Ali… In their article, Li Xuan, chief expert at the research base for cementing a sense of community for the Chinese nation at Sichuan University in Southwest China, and Zang Zheng, a doctoral candidate at Sichuan University's School of History and Culture, provide an in-depth exploration of the historical and cultural roots behind this phenomenon. This is an excerpt from the article.
Further discoveries in 1995 included millet at the Changguogou site in Xizang, dating back approximately 3,500 years.
The presence of millet at both the Kharub and Changguogou sites demonstrates that this crop, indigenous to the Central Plains, reached Xizang as early as the Neolithic era, highlighting longstanding exchanges between the Central Plains and Xizang in terms of food culture.
There are also records in Tibetan and Han texts after the Tang Dynasty (618-907) of food from the inland region that entered Tibetan settlements. The numerous Sichuan restaurants on the streets of Lhasa today are proof that food from the inland has become an indispensable part of daily Xizang society.
Sichuan soldiers, merchants, and cuisine
Why did Sichuan cuisine become the most favored cuisine in Xizang?
During the early Qing Dynasty (1644-1911), the local regions of Xizang faced disturbances from the Dzungar invasion, prompting the imperial court to dispatch troops to Xizang on multiple occasions under the Kangxi and Qianlong emperors.
From 1733, the 11th year of the Yongzheng reign, Sichuan officials and soldiers became the primary corps of troops stationed in Xizang by the imperial court, making them a pivotal force in the propagation of Sichuan cuisine throughout the region during the Qing era.
According to Records of Xizang, written during the Qianlong period, the vegetable species brought into Xizang included cabbage, lettuce, spinach, amaranth, garlic chives, radish, garland chrysanthemum, string beans, and fenugreek.
Lhasa, situated in the alluvial plain of the Lhasa River's middle valley, experiences mild summers and winters, creating favorable conditions for these crops from the inland regions.
By 1797, when He Ning was appointed as the Resident Minister of Xizang, the Sichuan soldiers had established gardens growing spinach, cabbage, cucumber, lettuce, green onion, garlic, garlic chives, parsley, celery, fennel, eggplant, radish, and turnips.
Additionally, the Resident Minister possessed two exclusive vegetable gardens managed by the barracks, where green chili peppers and Sichuan peppercorns, ingredients typical of Sichuan cuisine, were cultivated.
Furthermore, the Resident Minister's office employed Sichuan chefs from the barracks to prepare dishes such as mutton hot pot with noodles, stir-fried pork with green chili peppers, and rice with bean curd.
During the late Qing Dynasty, officers and soldiers who had grown accustomed to life on the Xizang plateau, predominantly from the Sichuan troops, often married local women and settled in Xizang. Their descendants were deeply integrated into Tibetan culture, with many of them not knowing any Putonghua but were fluent in Tibetan instead.
After the Qing Dynasty, Sichuan merchants replaced the Sichuan army as the main force behind the spread of Sichuan cuisine in the region.
When Yang Zhifu, a staff member of the Mongolian and Tibetan commission of the central government, visited Xizang in 1934, there were about 300 households of people from the inland areas living in Lhasa.
This influx of Sichuan merchants inevitably facilitated the proliferation of Sichuan cuisine in the region, also resulting in a high demand for Sichuan chefs.
In his book, Zhu Shaoyi, the secretary of Wu Zhongxin, the chairman of the Mongolian and Tibetan commission of the central government at that time, recounts the story of a Sichuan cook with the surname Huang. "There was a Sichuan man surnamed Huang. He was good at cooking, but his skills were mediocre. However, since what was rare was valuable, he gained a high reputation within a short time."
Facilitated by the Sichuan military and merchants, inland Chinese cuisine was no longer confined to the traditional Tibetan aristocratic households. A commercialization trend targeting the general public had emerged. Gombojab Tsebekovitch Tsybikoff, a Russian orientalist, observed during his 1899-1902 residence in Lhasa that several Han people-operated eateries had already appeared, offering tea, various dishes, and Han-style pastries.
Nonetheless, despite the availability of Sichuan cuisine to some Tibetan residents in Lhasa during this period, the constraints of transportation and economic development of the era meant that its consumption remained largely the privilege of nobles and high-ranking religious figures. Sichuan cuisine had not yet become accessible to all social strata.
Sichuan restaurants across Lhasa
Sichuan cuisine truly transcends class boundaries and has gained widespread popularity in Xizang following the founding of the People's Republic of China in 1949, particularly after the initiation of the reform and opening-up policy.
In 1954, following the peaceful liberation of Xizang, China embarked on a mission to foster long-term development in the region by constructing a robust infrastructure network. This initiative led to the merging and opening of the Sichuan-Xizang Highway and the Qinghai-Xizang Highway in Lhasa, marking the end of an era without highways in Xizang. Subsequently, the Lhasa Gonggar Airport was inaugurated in 1965, further enhancing the region's connectivity. The crowning achievement of these infrastructure developments was the completion of the Qinghai-Xizang Railway in 2006, which significantly bolstered transportation links between Xizang and inland cities.
In addressing the issue of local vegetable supply in Xizang, advancements in agricultural technology have played a significant role. By the 1980s, the extensive use of greenhouses and intercropping techniques had facilitated the cultivation within Xizang of vegetables sourced from various regions of China, substantially boosting the local vegetable supply.
The substantial increase in the supply of fresh vegetables has made them financially accessible to the general Tibetan population, thereby engendering significant transformations in the dietary patterns of ordinary citizens in Xizang, particularly in Lhasa. This phenomenon has also facilitated a greater receptivity toward inland cuisine, exemplified by Sichuan cuisine.
In the 1990s, Sichuan restaurants clustered around the Jokhang Temple and Ramoche Temple in the city's old neighborhoods. By 2003, these establishments had relocated to the western suburbs.
In recent years, due to market saturation in the western suburbs, some Sichuan restaurants have gradually shifted eastward, creating a city-wide presence.
The success of Sichuan cuisine in Lhasa continues to draw Sichuanese people and individuals from other inland provinces to the Sichuan culinary industry in Xizang. The proliferation of Sichuan restaurants also provides job opportunities for Tibetans.
Some successful Sichuan restaurant owners eventually return to their hometowns after achieving financial success in Lhasa, passing on their recipes to other Sichuanese people, Tibetans, and restaurateurs from different provinces, ensuring the continued spread of Sichuan cuisine among diverse ethnic groups and regions.
The spread of Sichuan cuisine has led Tibetans, who previously lacked the cooking knowledge of inland areas, to gradually learn and embrace these methods.
An interviewee shared, "As soon as winter approaches, our family naturally thinks of eating Sichuan cuisine, especially hot pot. In the last few years, hot pot has gradually replaced the family's traditional casserole… My brother especially loves spicy food. He adds Pixian chili bean paste every time he cooks."
Noble dishes for all
Traditionally, Tibetans have relied on tsampa (roasted barley) as their main staple. With the introduction of Sichuan cuisine to Xizang, rice consumption began to rise among Tibetans.
By the late Qing Dynasty and the ROC era, rice had become a popular staple in Lhasa. However, due to the high transportation costs, it was initially a luxury mainly afforded by the aristocracy.
Today, rice is a common staple for the general population in Xizang and has even been incorporated into the reception traditions of Lhasa's residents. When hosting guests, locals often serve a dish made with rice, groma, butter, and sugar.
Over time, the fusion of Han and Tibetan culinary cultures has deepened. The influence of Sichuan cuisine on native Tibetan food culture is no longer unidirectional; it is adapting to and integrating with Tibetan cuisine. This blending has led to a culinary fusion of Sichuan flavors with traditional Tibetan food.
For instance, the Lhasa version of hot pot extensively incorporates Tibetan yak and lamb meats. The pungent and spicy seasonings in the hot pot base effectively mitigate the gamy odor of the meat. Local yak meat products in Xizang are now also enhanced with a hint of Sichuan flavor. Lhasa markets now offer air-dried yak meat seasoned with Sichuan peppercorns, chili peppers, salt, and other spices to mitigate the meaty smell.
In Lhasa, it is common to see Tibetans enjoying Sichuan dishes and Sichuanese savoring Tibetan cuisine, with hot pot, tsampa, and butter tea becoming favorites among various ethnic groups in the region.
In recent years, there has been an increasing number of Tibetans venturing out of their regions to conduct business, pursue education, or settle in inland cities. This migration has introduced their indigenous lifestyles and culinary traditions to other provinces. Chengdu, capital of Southwest China's Sichuan Province, boasts a plethora of Tibetan restaurants.
Mirroring the Sichuan eateries in Lhasa, Tibetan restaurants in Chengdu have adapted to local tastes. This culinary exchange and fusion between Han and Tibetan food cultures have transcended ethnic and regional boundaries, emerging as a cherished cultural asset shared by all ethnic groups, including the Han and Tibetans.
In Xizang, one can enjoy authentic Sichuan cuisine. Today, Sichuan cuisine has become an integral part of life in Southwest China's Xizang Autonomous Region - from the bustling hotpot and self-service skewers in downtown Lhasa to modest roadside eateries serving spicy dishes along the remote highways of Ali… In their article, Li Xuan, chief expert at the research base for cementing a sense of community for the Chinese nation at Sichuan University in Southwest China, and Zang Zheng, a doctoral candidate at Sichuan University's School of History and Culture, provide an in-depth exploration of the historical and cultural roots behind this phenomenon. This is an excerpt from the article.
The noisy Barkhor Bazaar in central Lhasa, Xizang Photo: Shan Jie/GT
In the 1970s, archaeologists unearthed millet at the Kharub site in Xizang, dating back 4,300 to 5,300 years ago. This millet, derived from green foxtail, had its origins in the Central Plains of the Yellow River Basin.Further discoveries in 1995 included millet at the Changguogou site in Xizang, dating back approximately 3,500 years.
The presence of millet at both the Kharub and Changguogou sites demonstrates that this crop, indigenous to the Central Plains, reached Xizang as early as the Neolithic era, highlighting longstanding exchanges between the Central Plains and Xizang in terms of food culture.
There are also records in Tibetan and Han texts after the Tang Dynasty (618-907) of food from the inland region that entered Tibetan settlements. The numerous Sichuan restaurants on the streets of Lhasa today are proof that food from the inland has become an indispensable part of daily Xizang society.
Sichuan soldiers, merchants, and cuisine
Why did Sichuan cuisine become the most favored cuisine in Xizang?
During the early Qing Dynasty (1644-1911), the local regions of Xizang faced disturbances from the Dzungar invasion, prompting the imperial court to dispatch troops to Xizang on multiple occasions under the Kangxi and Qianlong emperors.
From 1733, the 11th year of the Yongzheng reign, Sichuan officials and soldiers became the primary corps of troops stationed in Xizang by the imperial court, making them a pivotal force in the propagation of Sichuan cuisine throughout the region during the Qing era.
According to Records of Xizang, written during the Qianlong period, the vegetable species brought into Xizang included cabbage, lettuce, spinach, amaranth, garlic chives, radish, garland chrysanthemum, string beans, and fenugreek.
A local restaurant in Lhasa, Southwest China's Xizang Autonomous Region Photo: VCG
Lhasa, situated in the alluvial plain of the Lhasa River's middle valley, experiences mild summers and winters, creating favorable conditions for these crops from the inland regions.
By 1797, when He Ning was appointed as the Resident Minister of Xizang, the Sichuan soldiers had established gardens growing spinach, cabbage, cucumber, lettuce, green onion, garlic, garlic chives, parsley, celery, fennel, eggplant, radish, and turnips.
Additionally, the Resident Minister possessed two exclusive vegetable gardens managed by the barracks, where green chili peppers and Sichuan peppercorns, ingredients typical of Sichuan cuisine, were cultivated.
Furthermore, the Resident Minister's office employed Sichuan chefs from the barracks to prepare dishes such as mutton hot pot with noodles, stir-fried pork with green chili peppers, and rice with bean curd.
During the late Qing Dynasty, officers and soldiers who had grown accustomed to life on the Xizang plateau, predominantly from the Sichuan troops, often married local women and settled in Xizang. Their descendants were deeply integrated into Tibetan culture, with many of them not knowing any Putonghua but were fluent in Tibetan instead.
After the Qing Dynasty, Sichuan merchants replaced the Sichuan army as the main force behind the spread of Sichuan cuisine in the region.
When Yang Zhifu, a staff member of the Mongolian and Tibetan commission of the central government, visited Xizang in 1934, there were about 300 households of people from the inland areas living in Lhasa.
This influx of Sichuan merchants inevitably facilitated the proliferation of Sichuan cuisine in the region, also resulting in a high demand for Sichuan chefs.
In his book, Zhu Shaoyi, the secretary of Wu Zhongxin, the chairman of the Mongolian and Tibetan commission of the central government at that time, recounts the story of a Sichuan cook with the surname Huang. "There was a Sichuan man surnamed Huang. He was good at cooking, but his skills were mediocre. However, since what was rare was valuable, he gained a high reputation within a short time."
Facilitated by the Sichuan military and merchants, inland Chinese cuisine was no longer confined to the traditional Tibetan aristocratic households. A commercialization trend targeting the general public had emerged. Gombojab Tsebekovitch Tsybikoff, a Russian orientalist, observed during his 1899-1902 residence in Lhasa that several Han people-operated eateries had already appeared, offering tea, various dishes, and Han-style pastries.
Nonetheless, despite the availability of Sichuan cuisine to some Tibetan residents in Lhasa during this period, the constraints of transportation and economic development of the era meant that its consumption remained largely the privilege of nobles and high-ranking religious figures. Sichuan cuisine had not yet become accessible to all social strata.
Sichuan restaurants across Lhasa
Sichuan cuisine truly transcends class boundaries and has gained widespread popularity in Xizang following the founding of the People's Republic of China in 1949, particularly after the initiation of the reform and opening-up policy.
In 1954, following the peaceful liberation of Xizang, China embarked on a mission to foster long-term development in the region by constructing a robust infrastructure network. This initiative led to the merging and opening of the Sichuan-Xizang Highway and the Qinghai-Xizang Highway in Lhasa, marking the end of an era without highways in Xizang. Subsequently, the Lhasa Gonggar Airport was inaugurated in 1965, further enhancing the region's connectivity. The crowning achievement of these infrastructure developments was the completion of the Qinghai-Xizang Railway in 2006, which significantly bolstered transportation links between Xizang and inland cities.
In addressing the issue of local vegetable supply in Xizang, advancements in agricultural technology have played a significant role. By the 1980s, the extensive use of greenhouses and intercropping techniques had facilitated the cultivation within Xizang of vegetables sourced from various regions of China, substantially boosting the local vegetable supply.
Tibetan hot pot is a result of Sichuan cuisine's influence in Xizang. Photo: VCG
In the 1990s, several significant farmers' markets emerged in Lhasa. These markets not only sold vegetables transported from inland cities but also offered fresh local produce.The substantial increase in the supply of fresh vegetables has made them financially accessible to the general Tibetan population, thereby engendering significant transformations in the dietary patterns of ordinary citizens in Xizang, particularly in Lhasa. This phenomenon has also facilitated a greater receptivity toward inland cuisine, exemplified by Sichuan cuisine.
In the 1990s, Sichuan restaurants clustered around the Jokhang Temple and Ramoche Temple in the city's old neighborhoods. By 2003, these establishments had relocated to the western suburbs.
In recent years, due to market saturation in the western suburbs, some Sichuan restaurants have gradually shifted eastward, creating a city-wide presence.
The success of Sichuan cuisine in Lhasa continues to draw Sichuanese people and individuals from other inland provinces to the Sichuan culinary industry in Xizang. The proliferation of Sichuan restaurants also provides job opportunities for Tibetans.
Some successful Sichuan restaurant owners eventually return to their hometowns after achieving financial success in Lhasa, passing on their recipes to other Sichuanese people, Tibetans, and restaurateurs from different provinces, ensuring the continued spread of Sichuan cuisine among diverse ethnic groups and regions.
The spread of Sichuan cuisine has led Tibetans, who previously lacked the cooking knowledge of inland areas, to gradually learn and embrace these methods.
An interviewee shared, "As soon as winter approaches, our family naturally thinks of eating Sichuan cuisine, especially hot pot. In the last few years, hot pot has gradually replaced the family's traditional casserole… My brother especially loves spicy food. He adds Pixian chili bean paste every time he cooks."
Noble dishes for all
Traditionally, Tibetans have relied on tsampa (roasted barley) as their main staple. With the introduction of Sichuan cuisine to Xizang, rice consumption began to rise among Tibetans.
By the late Qing Dynasty and the ROC era, rice had become a popular staple in Lhasa. However, due to the high transportation costs, it was initially a luxury mainly afforded by the aristocracy.
Today, rice is a common staple for the general population in Xizang and has even been incorporated into the reception traditions of Lhasa's residents. When hosting guests, locals often serve a dish made with rice, groma, butter, and sugar.
Tibetan hot pot is a result of Sichuan cuisine's influence in Xizang. Photo: VCG
Over time, the fusion of Han and Tibetan culinary cultures has deepened. The influence of Sichuan cuisine on native Tibetan food culture is no longer unidirectional; it is adapting to and integrating with Tibetan cuisine. This blending has led to a culinary fusion of Sichuan flavors with traditional Tibetan food.
For instance, the Lhasa version of hot pot extensively incorporates Tibetan yak and lamb meats. The pungent and spicy seasonings in the hot pot base effectively mitigate the gamy odor of the meat. Local yak meat products in Xizang are now also enhanced with a hint of Sichuan flavor. Lhasa markets now offer air-dried yak meat seasoned with Sichuan peppercorns, chili peppers, salt, and other spices to mitigate the meaty smell.
In Lhasa, it is common to see Tibetans enjoying Sichuan dishes and Sichuanese savoring Tibetan cuisine, with hot pot, tsampa, and butter tea becoming favorites among various ethnic groups in the region.
In recent years, there has been an increasing number of Tibetans venturing out of their regions to conduct business, pursue education, or settle in inland cities. This migration has introduced their indigenous lifestyles and culinary traditions to other provinces. Chengdu, capital of Southwest China's Sichuan Province, boasts a plethora of Tibetan restaurants.
Mirroring the Sichuan eateries in Lhasa, Tibetan restaurants in Chengdu have adapted to local tastes. This culinary exchange and fusion between Han and Tibetan food cultures have transcended ethnic and regional boundaries, emerging as a cherished cultural asset shared by all ethnic groups, including the Han and Tibetans.
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